Inside The Unseen Forces Shaping East Asian Beliefs
(ANALYSIS) A recent Pew Research Center survey of over 10,000 adults in East Asia and Vietnam indicated that the region is significantly less religious compared to global standards. Few East Asian adults report engaging in daily prayers or consider religion a major part of their lives. Additionally, the rates of religious disaffiliation, where individuals leave organized religion, are among the highest in the world.
However, on closer inspection, the survey presents a more complex picture. Many people across East Asia and Vietnam still maintain religious or spiritual beliefs and actively participate in traditional rituals. In the likes of Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam, for example, a majority of adults express belief in gods and/or unseen beings.
The belief in unseen beings is a deeply entrenched aspect of the cultural, religious, and spiritual life throughout Vietnam and East Asia. These beliefs encompass a wide range of entities, from spirits of ancestors and nature to deities and demons; they reflect an intricate link among religion, spirituality, folklore and everyday life. In Vietnam, the veneration of ancestors is a cornerstone of culture.
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Ancestral spirits are believed to influence the living, offering protection and guidance in exchange for reverence and offerings. This practice bridges the gap between spirituality and religion, involving rituals and ceremonies typically associated with religious observance yet remaining deeply personal and spiritual.
For instance, Đạo Mẫu, or Mother Goddess worship, involves the worship of mother goddesses, spirits and historical figures who are deified. The mother goddesses represent various aspects of nature and society, such as heaven, mountains and water.
Rituals often include spirit possession, in which mediums become conduits for these deities, offering blessings and counsel to the devotees. Similarly, during Tết Nguyên Đán, the Lunar New Year, families perform rituals to honor their ancestors. Offerings of food, incense and symbolic money are made to invite ancestral spirits to join the celebrations, ensuring their favor for the coming year.
To be clear, spirituality and religion, while often overlapping, have distinct differences. Spirituality is primarily about an individual's personal connection to a higher power, the universe or a deeper sense of meaning and purpose in life. It is flexible and subjective, allowing for a wide range of beliefs and practices tailored to personal needs and experiences. In contrast, religion typically involves organized institutions with established doctrines, rituals and traditions shared by a community of believers. In essence, spirituality centers on personal experiences and beliefs, while religion is structured around collective beliefs, practices and institutional frameworks. The belief in unseen beings connects both concepts.
In China, a country I worked in for a couple of years, beliefs in unseen beings are deeply rooted in its religious and philosophical traditions, including Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. These traditions often emphasize harmony with the natural world and the spiritual forces that inhabit it. Taoist cosmology is rich with a variety of spirits and deities, such as the Jade Emperor, who is considered the supreme deity overseeing a multitude of lesser gods, spirits and immortals.
Taoist practices, such as feng shui and traditional medicine, often involve appeasing or harnessing these unseen forces to bring balance and health. Ancestor worship is also prevalent in China, where the belief that ancestors continue to exist in a spiritual realm and can influence the living is fundamental. Rituals like the Qingming Festival involve cleaning graves and making offerings to ensure the well-being of ancestral spirits.
Two thousand miles away, in Japan, Shintoism and Buddhism coexist, both incorporating beliefs in unseen beings that influence the natural and human world. In Shintoism, “kami” are spirits or gods that inhabit natural objects, landscapes and phenomena. These spirits are revered in various shrines across the country, and rituals and festivals often aim to honor kami and seek their favor for bountiful harvests, health and protection. The Obon Festival is a Buddhist celebration involving the return of ancestral spirits to the world of the living. Families prepare altars with offerings of food, flowers and lanterns to guide the spirits, making it both a religious observance and a deeply spiritual time for honoring and reconnecting with ancestors.
As for South Korea, another country I had the pleasure of working in, its spiritual landscape is influenced by Shamanism, Buddhism and Confucianism. All three, in their own unique ways, contribute to the belief in unseen beings. Korean shamanism, for instance, involves the belief in a multitude of spirits, including those of ancestors, nature and deities. Shamans, or “mudangs,” act as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds, conducting rituals to heal, protect and ensure prosperity. Jesa, a Confucian ritual, involves making offerings to ancestral spirits on death anniversaries and major holidays, underscoring the respect and veneration for ancestors and reflecting a blend of religious and spiritual beliefs.
Throughout history, several Eastern thinkers and philosophers have discussed the nature of unseen beings and their place in religion and spirituality. Laozi, the founder of Taoism, emphasized living in harmony with the Tao (the Way), which includes invisible forces and spirits. His work, “Tao Te Ching,” explores the interconnectedness of all things, visible and invisible, and the importance of aligning oneself with the natural flow of the universe.
Confucius, while primarily focused on ethics and social harmony, acknowledged the importance of ancestral worship and rituals, believing that proper conduct in these rituals helped maintain societal order and respect for family lineage. Japanese Buddhist monk Dogen, who founded the Soto school of Zen, often reflected on the nature of existence, the interplay between the seen and unseen, and the importance of mindfulness in connecting with deeper spiritual realities.
From Hanoi to Heinan, Seoul to Sapporo, the belief in unseen beings highlights the close alignment of religious and spiritual traditions. These practices shape the lives of tens of millions of people. Moreover, these beliefs, whether in ancestral spirits, nature deities or other supernatural entities, reflect a profound connection to the past, present and future.
John Mac Ghlionn is a researcher and essayist. He covers psychology and social relations. His writing has appeared in places including UnHerd, The US Sun and The Spectator World.