(REVIEW) Did Muslims influence the construction of Europe’s great religious structures, such as Mont St. Michel, Durham Cathedral, the Basilica of Santiago de Compostela, the Leaning Tower of Pisa and the Cappella Palatina in Sicily?

Researcher and author Diana Darke argues that the connections between Islamic and Christian cultures during the medieval period were much stronger than commonly believed. This cross-fertilization of cultures had a significant impact on society, religion and culture.

Her extensive research, covering hundreds of buildings across the U.K., Germany, Spain, Italy, North Africa, Turkey and the Middle East led her to propose replacing the term "Romanesque" with "Islamesque."

In her book “Islamesque,” Darke points out that Muslim craftsmen in the Middle East and North Africa possessed skills far beyond those of their medieval European counterparts. Islamic cities during this period had running water, efficient drainage systems, libraries, free schools, daily garbage collection and even street lighting. They were experts in mathematics, engineering, medicine and architecture, with advanced knowledge of geometry and complex ornamentation.

“No architectural style just ‘appears’ out of nowhere.  All the key innovations attributed to Romanesque – new vaulting techniques, the use of decorative frames, interlace and ornamental devices like blind arches. … The use of fantastical beasts and foliage in sculpture – can be traced back to their origins, and all of these without exception lead us eastwards,” Darke wrote. “Christianity is after all an Eastern religion, born like Judaism and Islam, in the East under the influence of many earlier cultures.”

During the early Middle Ages, multiculturalism thrived in many parts of Europe. In Spain, it was difficult to distinguish between Muslims, European Christians and Arab Christians since they dressed alike, spoke Spanish and shared cultural practices, including the use of the Christian calendar with its religious feasts.

In Sicily, the Norman rulers adopted the Arabic calendar and continued using Arabic coins, which had been in circulation on the island for over three centuries. Greek and Arabic bilingualism was widespread and the term "Arab" referred not only to Muslims but to anyone who spoke Arabic. Intermarriage was common.

This blend of cultures is clearly evident in the construction of the Cappella Palatina. Darke notes that Norman ruler Roger II employed Byzantine artists to create mosaics and Muslim Fatimid craftsmen, carpenters and artists from Cairo to design the intricate wooden ceiling, featuring a motif of eight-pointed stars enclosing eight-petaled flowers. Every surface was adorned with designs of fantastical beasts, people singing, dancing and relaxing. Even his coronation robes — woven by Muslims — contained an inscription in Arabic and the Hijra date of 528.

The presence of extensive trade routes provided constant links between countries and cultures, allowing ideas to circulate freely. This was a time when Christian Europe was becoming wealthy, enabling churches, cathedrals and monastic institutions to undertake prestigious building projects. They sought the most innovative, up-to-date styles. As a result, craftspeople from both Christian Europe and the Muslim world traveled, became involved in various construction projects, and introduced new ideas. It worked both ways — Islamic craftsmen participated in Christian building projects and Christian craftsmen influenced Muslim ones.

Numerous examples illustrate this exchange. In Wells Cathedral, stonemasons used Arabic numbers to label sculptures, while at Peterborough Cathedral, Islamic-influenced techniques were used to decorate the ceiling. The anti-Pope Benedict XIII, based in Avignon, France, owned Muslim slaves and hired Muslim craftsmen to build and furnish churches and palaces. Christian mosaicists also worked on the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, creating scenes of fantastical palaces, gardens, rivers, and trees.

The cover of “Islamesque” features an illustration from a medieval document titled “St. Benedict Founds Twelve Monasteries,” depicting St. Benedict, accompanied by monks, inspecting a building site. Almost all of the craftspeople at work are portrayed as Arab or African — such as a turbaned man sitting in the rafters, a sculptor shaping a capital base, and men conferring over plans.

These links between Muslims and Christians have continued through the centuries. The restoration of Notre-Dame de Paris, for example, involved numerous small, specialist firms, including the traditional carpentry company Atelier de la Grande Oye, founded by Paul Muhsin Zahnd. This company created twelve of the wooden nave frames supporting the roof.

Zahnd told Darke: “We are very happy and proud to participate in that work, and we are looking for the best way to communicate our beautiful crafts and our faith, which are of course perfectly compatible, feeding one another … we prayed all along the work, to bless the trees, our craft, our friendship, the Almighty who allowed us to be part of the project, to bless all the people who work with us, to celebrate the beauty and majesty of our creator … Some of us are affirmed Muslims claiming our faith and our joy to rebuild a cathedral!”

Angela Youngman is a freelance journalist who has written for a wide range of British and international publications.