More Than Mindfulness: How Buddhism Became Involved In Warfare
(REVIEW) Buddhism is one of the major religions of the world. Today, many people engage with it through meditation, mindfulness practices and the writings of esteemed figures such as Thich Nhat Hanh and the Dalai Lama.
However, Buddhism is not limited to ideas of peace, karma or individual liberation from suffering. In his book, “Buddhism: A Journey through History,” Professor Donald S. Lopez, Jr., a prominent scholar of Buddhist Studies, presents a more nuanced account of its complex and often contentious past.
The book explores Buddhism’s impact on both individual practice and broader societal developments. My takeaway from the book is to highlight some of the most compelling aspects of how Buddhism influenced politics, nations and warfare in East Asian countries with deeply-rooted Buddhist traditions.
LISTEN: The Kidnapping Of The Panchen Lama
The Buddhist tradition recounts the story of the Buddha's birth in connection with the concept of cakravartin, or “wheel-turning monarch.” In ancient Indian belief, a cakravartin was a universal ruler who conquered territories with a symbolic wheel and was expected to uphold virtue and refrain from evil deeds.
In various historical periods, Buddhism was the dominant religion in several countries, where monarchs drew on the concept of the cakravartin (an enlightened ruler) to legitimize their authority. These rulers claimed to embody the moral and spiritual qualities of this ideal king.
One notable example is Wu Zetian, the only female emperor in Chinese history and a powerful figure during the Tang Dynasty. Originally a servant and concubine, she later became a Buddhist nun and ultimately rose to power as Empress. In a kingdom where Buddhism was favored, Wu strategically employed Buddhist symbolism to legitimize her reign.
She became a patron of prominent monks, scholars, and artists, promoting Buddhism throughout the Tang court. Under her rule, 3,000 copies of the “Lotus Sutra” — one of Buddhism’s most revered texts—were printed. She also dedicated a lavish gold-and-silver shrine to house a relic believed to be a bone from the Buddha’s finger.
In 690 C.E., a group of monks presented Wu with a newly translated Buddhist text, the “Great Cloud Sutra,” which contained a prophecy about a goddess who would become a female cakravartin, ruling a Buddhist heartland in peace and prosperity. Interestingly, the monks had inserted this prophecy into the original text.
For Wu, the authenticity of the translation was beside the point — what mattered was its political utility. She enhanced her imperial title with language suggesting she was the cakravartin destined to rule the four continents in peace.
Soldier Monks: When Buddhism wages war
In fact, if you believe Buddhist monks only promote peace and compassion, think again. Lopez explores how Japanese monks, particularly in medieval times, actively engaged in military conflict.
One of the most famous warrior monks was Benkei. Of the five monastic precepts — abstaining from killing, lying, stealing, sexual misconduct and intoxication — Benkei is believed to have only observed the last two. The others, he felt, interfered with his duties as a warrior.
Benkei was a monk of Enryakuji, a renowned monastery on Mount Hiei in japan. Its founder, Saichō, had studied the “Lotus Sutra” in China and established the Tendai school to train monks in its teachings.
As Tendai Buddhism grew in influence, internal rivalries emerged. One monk from the Tendai tradition later founded the Nichiren sect, which claimed the “Lotus Sutra” as the sole path to salvation. The Tendai sect, by contrast, adopted a more inclusive interpretation. The two groups fiercely competed to represent the true teachings of the “Lotus Sutra.”
Eventually, their rivalry erupted into open conflict. A swift but brutal war between the sects claimed at least 3,000 lives and led to the destruction of many Nichiren temples. Enryakuji emerged victorious, but their dominance was short-lived. A few decades later, Oda Nobunaga — one of Japan’s most powerful generals — crushed the Nichiren sect, effectively ending the era of militant monks.
Korean Buddhism also witnessed the rise of warrior monks, especially during the Imjin War, when Japan invaded the Korean Peninsula under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Nobunaga’s successor. Facing a national crisis, many Korean monks joined the military to defend the Joseon dynasty. In return, the monarchy recognized their religious status.
Renowned monks such as Hyujong and his disciple Yonggyu led what’s called “righteous armies” who played a vital role in resisting the Japanese forces. Their efforts exemplified how Buddhism could become a powerful force not only for spiritual practice but also for national defense.
Thien Bui is a Vietnamese writer who specializes in the history and religions of Southeast Asia.